5th Annual Fiesta de las Catrinas is on October 28, 2023 at Casa Werma, in the centro of Patzcuaro Michoacan Mexico.

BIENVENIDOS

Greetings and for those of you returning to winter from the north, welcome back to Mexico! Having just recovered from a mild case of covid, I can admit that my busiest days of late have involved descending and climbing the stairs for water between my bed and the kitchen! There could not have been a better time for a deep recharge before the busiest time of year for me, begins. I apologize for this months issue being late, but my brain was not operating during my illness!

IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT ABOUT OUR WOMEN ARE SACRED TOUR. DATES ARE NOW NOV 28-DEC 8, 2023

I have an important announcement about our WOMEN ARE SACRED tour to Chiapas in November. As many women requested that we change the dates due to a conflict with US Thanksgiving, we have changed this tour to November 28 to December 8, 2023. This tour is confirmed, and we are accepting deposits. This is a truly exciting tour, as it offers an eclectic collection of experiences, from visiting museums (Amber and Jade), textile villages, enjoying a lecture by a local Maya weaver who is also a psychologist about the empowerment of women within Maya society, a traditional cooking class, swimming in pristine waterfalls, enjoying light hiking, exploring 4 remote masterpiece cities of the ancient Maya, plus the famous ruins of Palenque, and an option to visit Canyon del Sumidero, based on your flight arrival. We will stay in San Cristobal de las Casas, Ocosingo, Selva Lacandona and Villahermosa, with flights arriving in Tuxtla Gutierrez, departing from Villahermosa. This truly is a wild adventure for intrepid solo women who are eager for a fun but safe adventure! We have one guest who is in her early 80´s, and others who are in their 60`s, so pace will be relaxed for hiking. (We welcome all adult women from 19+) Please visit Women are Sacred on our website, and contact us if you have any questions. We are really excited about this women-only tour!

I would like to give a very special thanks to Adrian Ceja Madrigal for sharing an article he and his colleagues published in the Boletín de la SCME last September 2022, as this article will be of interest to bird watchers coming on our Birds of the Maya Empire tour in February 2024. Adrian will lead our tour, along with wildlife biologist Trecia E Neal, whose preliminary work was in the field of ornithology before her focus shifted to Monarch Butterflies. Adrian is an experienced birder and PhD candidate at UNAM in Morelia. We have been discussing offering more bird watching tours in the Morelia and Lake Patzcuaro region, and look forward to sharing more information soon.

If you haven't done so already, kindly update my contact details to coppermoontravels@protonmail.com. Additionally, please take note that our new website is now accessible at www.coppermoontravels.com. You can also get in touch with me via text on WhatsApp at +52 443 639 2782.

Should you wish to no longer receive emails from me, please feel free to contact me directly. Otherwise, I hope you find pleasure in perusing this months issue of The Curator!

Warm regards,

Jennifer Bjarnason Proprietor

Raramuri Girl, Chihuahua November 2019

IN THIS EDITION

THE BEGUILING CATRINA

The Conception of La Fiesta de las Catrinas

JOSE GUADALUPE POSADA

The Price of Political Satire

PAINTED WALLS

Maya Murals of Bonampak

TEWERICHIC IN THE COPPER CANYON

The Drunken Escapades of the Devil & God

THE STUDY OF INVASIVE BIRDS IN MEXICO

Guest Article by Adrian Ceja Madrigal, Rodrigo Pacheco-Muñoz & Jorge E. Schondube

CHILES EN NOGADA

From Jennifer´s Kitchen

One of our guests gets painted for our 4th Annual Fiesta de las Catrinas, October 2022

THE BEGUILING CATRINA

The Conception of Fiesta de las Catrinas

In 2017, four American guests arrived in Morelia for Dia de Muertos, and assured me that dressing up during this culturally rich observation was expected and acceptable. They spent the afternoon piecing together incredibly elaborate costumes, and surfaced before dinner looking absolutely fabulous. With over two and a half decades experience working with indigenous communities in Canada, I was skeptical about this being a cemetery tradition, but as it was my first year exploring the cemeteries of the Lake Patzcauro region, I didn´t push it further. I had just attended the Catrina Parade in Mexico City, inspired by James Bond Spectre, and crowds of spectators were dressed up to emulate that powerful Hollywood scene. I had also been in Zihuatanejo the year before, where locals celebrated and held a Catrina costume competition, and where all was light and fun, so could only hope that wherever these four were going would have something similar on display. They departed with a private guide, and I left with a separate group to a different region of the lake.

The next morning, the breakfast table was full of humble apologies and a sincere request that I would promise to never allow our guests to dress up again, as these four travellers had found themselves feeling "big, loud and vulgar," during what was obviously a very sacred observation. One of them said she had wished the ground would swallow her, upon arrival, as they were the only foreigners in that particular cemetery, and the only people who were in costume. They were gracious enough to concede that I had warned them against dressing up, and admitted that the information they had read online was obviously out of touch with the indigenous protocols of our area. I so appreciated that they were noble enough to discuss their experience, rather than hiding or diminishing it for the sake of pride, and it became a subject of much thought for me to ponder how I could mitigate disappointment for future guests.

Guests Trecia and Eric dancing at our First Annual Catrina Party 2018

The solution was to host a Catrina party for our 2018 guests. At the time, I was working for a hotel in the absence of the owner, and she granted me permission to organize a party. The housekeeper cooked a lovely meal of traditional foods, including pozole and tamales, we had a face painter come to transform the guests from the living, to the dead, and a mariachi band arrived to surprise everyone. It was simple, quiet and attended by only a very small crowd.

That year, my brother Kris and I arrived in Mexico City on time for the James Bond inspired Catrina Parade, and the crowds were beyond what they had been the year previous. As we traversed the cemeteries of the Lake Patzcuaro region that 2018, I noticed a few more people were dressed in catrina costume, though it was still quite minimal.

Tragically, after the release of Pixar´s Coco, the cemeteries of the Lake Patzcauro region were over-run with La Catrina, including grotesque scenes of fun-loving tourists taking selfies framed with unconsenting Púrepecha elders in the background, and an unreal disdain for the pathways between the graves. Dia de Muertos had become a photo-op for hipsters who believed themselves to be culturally enriched, when in fact their behavior was beyond tone-deaf and offensive. Unlike my four American friends, who had the sense to take humble instruction from the indigenous elders upon realizing they were not dressed-up in costume, today´s tourist climate is one of huge entitlement.

Eddie Alvarez of Cielo Cocina Fusion in the spirit of La Catrina 2019

It must also be said that some tourists have dressed-up without behaving in a disrepectful manner, and were simply confused due to how many make-up artists are accepting payment to paint the public during these observations. I happen to have a dear friend who had her face painted in Tzintzuntzan, believing it acceptable because the face painters were local, and everyone was doing it. It is impossible for foreigners to automatically understand the nuance between Mexican tradition, and customs that are indigenous. Relations between indigenous groups and mainstream Mexican society are as strained in Mexico, as anywhere else in the world where colonization took place. It isn´t terribly surprising that the majority of make-up artists are not necessarily indigenous, and are also set-up in city centres where there are festive parties that don´t involve traditional cemeteries. To date, we have yet to witness make-up artists offering face-painting services outside the cemetery gates (thankfully) - and though some indigenous families are now allowing their small children to dress-up, and even trick-or-treat, the concept of wearing a costume during sacred observations in the cemetery is far from normalized among the Púrepecha. Please take your instruction from them, if you are heading to their cemeteries to witness their rites, and refrain from donning Catrina-Face.

Yours Truly, dressed up to hand out posters for our 4th Annual Fiesta de las Catrinas, Patzcuaro September 2022

Many have asked us why it´s acceptable to dress-up for a party, if it isn´t appropriate in the cemeteries, as surely both are akin to participating in cultural appropriation. It is true that some Mexican-Americans have expressed discontent with Catrina being celebrated by foreigners, but this is far from the truth within the local Mexican community. Inclusivity here paints a very different picture about La Catrina, her induction into Dia de Muertos, or the idea that foreigners participating in such a masquerade would be offensive.

The first rule about cultural appropiation lies in the sacredness of whatever is being stolen or used as inspiration. La Catrina was created as political satire,to mock segments of society who sought to compete with the wealthy, by spending their housing and food money on extravagant clothing. La Catrina was never attached to anything sacred, nor was she even conflated with Dia de Muertos until very recently. No part of her costume is considered ceremonial nor sacred, though of course she is as iconic in Mexico, as Venetian masquerades are in Italy.

Wearing a costume to the cemetery is an affront to indigenous elders because doing so suggests their sacred observation is nothing more than a costume party, or worse, a mockery, as this was the sentiment behind La Catrina`s creation. Wearing a costume to a fun-loving fiesta, where the intention is one of feasting, dancing and celebrating the humor Mexican society is so well-revered for, is far from the trampling of an indigenous tradition.

Fundamento Vinicola will return for our 5th Annual Fiesta de las Catrinas this October 28, 2023 at Casa Werma - Libertad 80, Centro, Patzcuaro, Michoacan Mexico

2023 marks our 5th Annual Fiesta de las Catrinas, which will be held at Casa Werma, in the heart of Patzcuaro´s centro. Eddie Alvarez of Morelia´s top-rated Cielo Cocina Fusion is cooking-up a grand Carnitas feast, which will be served with other delectables on offer. Omar of Mezcaleria San Miguel will create a welcome cocktail for guests arriving, and will have his El Generalisimo available throughout the party for mezcal lovers. Fundamento Vinicola will return with their lovely wines from Baha, and Cerveceria Maestra is back, serving their refreshing and delicious artisan beers! All is to be enjoyed with live entertainment by Gypsy Jazz Band The Dust Fingers, along with timed performances by a traditional local dance group, and more. Set in the prettiest gardens of Patzcuaro, we truly look forward to hosting you!

Jose Guadalupe Posada

JOSE GUADALUPE POSADA

The Price of Political Satire

Political Satire has always been dangerous, but thankfully the efforts of certain revered celebrities, such as Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera, have ensured that the incredible works of satire cartoonist Jose Guadalupe Posada, who died broke and in obscurity, would become legendary in Mexico.

Born on February 2, 1852 in Aguascaliente, Posada was schooled by his brother, Cirilo, who ran an elementary school. He learned reading, writing and drawing, and later enrolled in La Academia Municipal de Dibujo de Aguascalientes. By 1868, when Posada was merely 16 years old, he apprenticed in the workshop of Jose Trinidad Pedroza, who taught him lithography and engraving.

By 1871, Posada was working for El Jicote Newspaper as a political cartoonist. Sadly, after only 11 editions, one of Posada´s cartoons offended a local and powerful politician, and the consequences were severe as the newspaper was shut-down.

A leaflet that contained this image by Jose Guadalupe Posada read “From this famous hippodrome on the racetrack, not even a single journalist is missing. Death is inexorable and doesn’t even respect those that you see here on bicycle.”

Though published much later, between 1895-1913, this illustration was in response to censorship in Mexico: "Each skull had the name of a newspaper and an accessory that served as an allegory for it. For instance, toward the left edge, there was La Voz de México with a skull dressed in black holding the scythe of death; El Universal carried a kind of crown of celestial bodies; El Tiempo had wings, like Chronos; Partido Liberal wore a Phrygian cap; Gil Blas was dressed as an intellectual with a feather hat; and Siglo XIX wore a top hat. There were also smaller skulls that represented independent newspapers La Casera, Fandango, Siglo XX, and Quijote. Both the size of the skulls and the newspapers chosen by Posada—many of them no longer in existence at the beginning of the 20th century—suggest that the cartoonist was criticizing the condescension of the big newspapers of the Mexican elite during the regime of Porfirio Díaz. In the first few years of the 20th century, the regime toughened its censorship of independent or opposition press in order to remain in power. With his characteristic sarcastic humor, Posada predicted the decline of all these newspapers" - https://www.oas.org/artsoftheamericas/jose-guadalupe-posada

Jose Guadalupe Posada

Following the closing of El Jicote in Aguascalientes, Posada and his mentor and teacher Pedroza moved to Leon, Guanajuato in 1872. They set up a shop, and Posada worked as a lithography teacher. He met and married Maria de Jesus Vela in 1875, and in 1876 he purchased the printing press from Pedroza. Between 1875 -1888, Posada collaborated with La Gacetilla, El Pueblo Caotico and La Education newspapers in Leon. Vela and Posada`s only son, Juan Sabino Posada Vela, was born in 1883.

On June 18, 1888, great tragedy struck Leon, in the form of a major flood. It is theorized Posada lost family members during the flood, and there were 250 bodies recovered, with a further 1400 people reported missing. This flood also damaged Posada´s workshop. Historical notes confirm that Posada was already in contact with several publishers in Mexico City, and his subsequent move to the capital was likely a response to the damage his workshop had sustained.  

La Inundacion de Leon - Flood of June 18, 1888

Antonio Vanegas Arroyo (1852-1917) owned a publishing house in Mexico City, and it is believed Posada began working there as early as 1889. It´s an interesting note that one important attribute of Posada´s work, was his detailed symbolisms that could tell a story without the need for words. In 1910, Mexico´s literacy rate was reported to only be 32% among adults. Scholars believe Vanegas Arroyo hired Posada as his chief illustrator, as he understood his maket and knew literacy deficiency among the local populous was problematic for high readership. Vanegas Arroyo employed a skilled illustrator named Manuel Manilla (1830?-1895?), and though he was twenty years older than Posada, and an established engraver, his work was classic, while Posada´s illustrations were detailed, animated and creative. His work required no words, as even the illiterate understood the political climate of their time, and were represented in images that depicted the ills of poverty, unjust political leaders, mainly Porfirio Diaz, major events, religious allegories, and above all, criticism of the oppressive policies of government, over the people.

La Garbancera or La Cucaracha was later called La Catrina by famous Mexican Muralist Diego Rivera

Between 1910-1913, Jose Guadalupe Posada was particularly prolific, engraving depictions of the Mexican Revolution. He played an important role during the Presidency of Francisco I Madero, and the campaign of Emiliano Zapata. Historians are unsure as to the date of his creation of La Garbancera, or La Cucuracha, though most agree she was conceived in 1912 and published in 1913, not long before Posada´s death. It was Diego Rivera who later coined her as La Catrina, when he painted the famous "Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Park" in 1947. Posada´s intention behind her image was one of mockery and condescension of those who seek to live outside of their financial means, often spending all of their money on expensive clothes, rather than housing or food.

As with so many activists, who spend their lives fighting for the underdogs and witnessing unjust governments exploiting the most vulnerable of society, Jose Guadalupe Posada suffered from alcoholism, most likely amplified by depression. By the end of his career, which ended abruptly in 1913 when he passed away at 60 years of age from gastroenteritis brought on by years of alcoholism, Posada had produced more than 20,000 images for prints, pamphlets and chapbooks. It is problematic that probably only around 1000 images are signed, leaving critics to question the legitimacy of the bulk of his body of work. Posada was buried without notice, in an unmarked grave in Mexico City´s famous Dolores Cemetery.

Dance of the 41 Faggots - 1901. (Though there are only 12 men in this image) This must have been very controversial for it´s time. Aside from this image representing the gay community, scholars believe this is possibly the earliest depiction of Drag Queens ever seen in Mexico. I could not find any references as to whether or not Posada rejected homosexuality, but thought this was quite a profound illustration for 1901. Frida Kahlo was well known for bisexuality, and was a fan of Posada´s work. My guess is that Posada never made any criticisms of the gay community known, one way or the other. Interesting to note the orchestra are comprised of skeletons.

In the 1920´s, French born Mexican artist Jean Charlot was the first to popularize the works of Jose Guadalupe Posada. In 1929, Anita Brenner published a book called Ïdols behind Altars,¨which had illustrations by Posada. She referred to Posada as a prophet, and credited him as representing the peasants and workers of Mexico. US Author Frances Toor published a book entitled Posada: Grabador Mexicano, which was the first monograph about Posada, published in 1930. Diego Rivera commented on 406 prints by Posada, in the Forward. in 1933, Frida Kahlo would hang a selection of Posada´s prints in her hotel room in New York City. Leopoldo Mendez later reproduced over 900 of Posada´s illustrations.

Perhaps what gave Jose Guadalupe Posada his greatest claim to fame, was Diego Riveras mural, which featured La Catrina as the central and only supernatural subject among very famous celebrities and politicians of Mexico. Rivera was the first to give a full body to Catrina, as La Garbancera was only ever shown as a bust image. Later inducted as an iconic symbol of Dia de Muertos, La Catrina remains Posada´s most famous contribution, and has established his well deserved honour as one of Mexico´s most influential artists.

Murals of Bonampak

PAINTED WALLS

Maya Murals of Bonampak

Though Carlos Frey and John Bourne were the first westerners to arrive at the ancient city of Bonampak, Chiapas in February 1946, and Giles Healey is credited as the first for seeing the murals of Structure 1 in May of the same year, they were guided by two Lacandon Maya, Jose Pepe Chan Bor and Acasio Chan. Bonampak had long remained a ceremonial centre for the Lacandon Maya of the region, and pilgrimages had continued to this site regardless of contact, due to the remoteness of the impenetrable jungle, and the absence of colonizers. To date, the murals of Bonampak are revered as the best preserved and most important of the Maya world, and we are fortunate that archaeologists and INAH have implemented temperature and climate control measures to preserve them for the occassional explorer who passes through.

Ancient City of Bonampak

Historically, Bonampak is not as old as other sites of the Maya Empire, with construction taking place from the Early Classic Period (250-600 CE) to the Late Classic (600-900), the latter of which was when most of the temples and frescoes seen today, were erected. The city only reached a maximum population of around 6,000 inhabitants.

Bonampak is believed to be a satelite city of nearby Yaxchilan, which also features one structure with similar murals. Archaeologists believe the painting style of Bonampak was imported from Yaxchilan, given the historical and familial ties, though it is interesting to note these two cities were originally rivals. In the 5th Century, Bonampak was defeated by Kínich Tatbú Skull I, and a century later by Knot-Eye Jaguar I, and again by Kínich Tatbù Skull II. This third defeat resulted in Bonampak falling under the fierce rulers of Yaxchilan.

The vaulted ceiling with murals depicting war and victory

Located about 2 hours from the famous ruins of Palenque, only the truly intrepid travellers and lovers of Maya archaeology make the trek to the ancient city of Bonampak. This compact site is in the middle of the jungle, with a path leading away from the parking lot. The site does not receive a lot of visitors, though there are guides here. During high season, it is more likely to run into small crowds, as many tour operators now offer tours from Palenque, but there will certainly be fewer here than in major sites that have long been famous.

Painted walls - In the heart of the Lacandon jungle, Bonampak is famous for its extraordinary murals, which show scenes of war, paying tribute and the capture of prisoners for sacrific - Video by INAH

Tewerichic Ritual Dance during Raramuri Semana Santa observations in the Copper Canyon, Chihuahua

TEWERICHIC IN THE COPPER CANYON

The Drunken Escapades of the Devil & God

Semana Santa is one of the most important celebrations in all of Mexico, and one that attracts visitors from all over the world. With Easter being a Christian tradition, originally rooted in Catholicism, it has permeated indigenous cultures across Latin America, due to the fusion of culture and religion being a method for conversion by colonizers.

What makes Semana Santa in the Copper Canyon exceptional and rare, lies in the complexity of conversion methodology employed by the Roman Catholic priests, when they first arrived. The canyons are rugged, sharp and dangerous to navigate, rendering Christian missions unsuccesful and short-lived. In 1679, Jesuit Padre Pecoro was the first to arrive in this region, and soon left upon accepting the realization that the Raramuri were not interested in Christianty. One year later in 1680, Father Juan Maria de Salvatierra arrived in Cerocahui, and began construction of the Mission Church. It would take him four more years to penetrate the Urique Canyon, which involved a precise journey down a dangerous cliff on horseback, that at one point required him to descend the horse on a precarious angle, with thousands of feet looming beyond his position. He walked for much of the journey, only to arrive and find the locals disinterested in his message.

The view of Urique Village, from the look-out. The road looks more dangerous than it is. We will move at a slow pace, in our descent to this town, which is most famous for the running marathons that take place annually.

Despite Raramuri resistance to Christianity, an anchor was set in the cultural landscape, and a synchronisity between Catholic teachings and indigenous beliefs gave rise to an intriguing concept about the Devil and God. This is a tale that does not exist anywhere else in Mexico, or the world, but is relegated to the Raramuri culture of the Copper Canyon of Chihuahua State.

The concept of good vs evil is hardly unique, however the celebration of such an endeavor comes to life in the Copper Canyon, where Raramuri and Catholicism collided in an unprecented manner. The Raramrui belief system features pleas for rain, a bountiful harvest, good fortune and health. With a diminished focus on the Christian God, in favour of environmental concerns that favoured survival, the Raramuri conceived an interesting interpretation of the relationship between the Devil and God - one that illustrated God as weak and vulnerable. To Christians, this may feel offensive, however for the Raramuri, this embodies the plight of life. Evil continually tries to overcome good, and the strength required to triumph over evil often feels like divine intervention.

According to the Raramuri, God is forced to drink an incredible volume of an alcoholic beverage called Tesgüino. The Raramuri who bear witness to this cruel event are dedicated to protecting God and his wife, so that God will regain his strength, in spite of the Devils efforts to delegitamize him. The Raramuri contend the Devil will destroy them and the world, if the Devil is not defeated

Dance of Good vs Evil, Urique Canyon, Chihuaha

As this dance consists of two sides, they are divided between the Pharisees and the Cabochis. The former refers to servants of the Devil, and the other represent the warriors of God. As Catholic priests were unable to penetrate thie region without impunity for their failures, these traditions harbour indigenous influences beyond those of the colonizers.

It is said the Raramuri are the least colonized group of North America, to date. Surely this celebration is evidence of the most intriguing fusion between the Catholic religion and indigenous faith, that remains to be witnessed by small crowds today.

Please contact us soon, if you would like to join us. Though we traverse a rare landscape, accomodations are limited. We require deposits by October 31, so we may secure hotel reservations during the busiest time of year, in a limited market.

Individuals of the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Photograph by Jorge E. Schondub.

THE STUDY OF INVASIVE

BIRDS IN MEXICO

Adrián Ceja-Madrigal (1 & 2) Rodrigo Pacheco-Muñoz (1 & 2) Jorge E. Schondube (1)

(1) Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

(2) Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Summary: In this article, we present a review of bird invasions that have occurred in Mexico. After an intensive search in the scientific literature, we classified published studies by topics and discussed the most important findings. Our review indicates that there are 46 species of invasive birds in Mexico (30 exotic and 16 native). Four of them have stable and abundant populations in urban areas (Columba livia, Streptopelia decaocto, Passer domesticus, and Quiscalus mexicanus). The majority of studies mentioning invasive bird species fall into two categories: (1) studies of bird communities in urban environments (39%) and (2) reports of new sightings (32%). The most extensively studied invasive species in Mexico is the house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Sites invaded by this species have native bird communities with up to 30% fewer species, with most of the missing species being small granivorous birds. We identify the need for a national census of invasive birds, as well as studies on behavior, descriptions of invasion processes, and the consequences of invasions on the environment and human society. This is crucial for implementing effective management strategies in the near future.

Keywords: urban ecology, exotic invasive species, native invasive species, house sparrow, biotic invasions

Introduction: Since the publication of "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants," the pioneering work of Charles Elton in 1958, the scientific study of biological invasions has gone through a series of stages that have allowed for the generation of hypotheses about why certain species are able to establish and thrive in locations different from their original geographic distribution, while others do not. In his work, Elton proposed the hypothesis that regions with higher biodiversity near the tropics are more difficult to invade than temperate zones with fewer species. This is because the available niches are already occupied by native species that repel invasion attempts. This hypothesis marked the beginning of the study of invasions from an ecological and evolutionary perspective. Since the evidence in favor of this idea has not been conclusive, multiple hypotheses have been proposed to explain the factors that limit biotic invasions at different spatial and temporal scales.

In recent times, the growth of the human population has increased the number of introductions of exotic bird species worldwide (Duncan et al. 2003). Globally, there are 971 species translocated by humans, with 362 having established populations in invaded areas (Figure 1). This represents 9.7% and 3.6%, respectively, of the 10,000 bird species present in the world.

Figure 1. Global map of species richness of invasive birds with established populations in different regions of the world. Shades of blue indicate lower species richness of invasive birds, while shades of red represent higher richness. Gray color was used in geographical areas with no invasive birds (Adapted from Dyier et al. 2017).

One of the central themes in the study of invasions has been understanding the factors that limit the success of invasion for some species (Duncan et al. 2003). Globally, it has been demonstrated that abiotic factors (climate) play a more significant role than biotic factors (interactions). However, at a local scale, the number and intensity of new individuals introduced to the invaded site represent the most associated factor with success. It's important to consider that both external (environmental) factors and internal (intrinsic) characteristics of invasive birds play a significant role in determining invasion success (Blackburn et al. 2009). Thus, species with a generalist diet and tolerance to human presence are more likely to invade environments modified by human activities.

Invasive birds can have ecological and economic consequences (Downs and Hart 2020). Although there is debate about the extent of their ecological impact, it has been found that invasive birds can alter the structure of local communities and have even been associated with the extinction of native species. They can also cause economic losses through damage to infrastructure and/or crops.

In Mexico, the ecology and impact of some species of invasive birds have been studied, but there are still significant knowledge gaps for most species. How many and which species of invasive birds are found in Mexico? The information system on invasive species in Mexico (CONABIO 2022) includes 23 species of birds (Table 1). Some of them have abundant established populations in urban and agricultural environments (Passer domesticus, Columba livia, Streptopelia decaocto, Quiscalus mexicanus, Bubulcus ibis, and Sturnus vulgaris; Figure 2). Other species are confined to specific regions, and some, although not recorded in the country, were included due to their high invasion potential. We consider this list as a good starting point that needs to be modified. First, we removed species that are not present in Mexico and do not have established populations near our borders. Additionally, we believe it is necessary to consider native invasive species (i.e., a species native to one region of a country that is invasive in another region of the same country). By doing this, we can add another 11 species to the previously mentioned list. Examples include the rufous-backed thrush (Turdus rufopalliatus; Martínez-Morales et al. 2010) and the great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus; MacGregor-Fors et al. 2009b), as well as various species of parrots and parakeets (family Psittacidae; Ramírez-Albores and Chapa-Vargas 2014; Urbina-Torres 2017). Additionally, considering the book "Animales Exóticos en México" (Álvarez-Romero et al. 2008), we can add another 14 species, both exotic and native, present in the country within Management and Use Units (UMAs) or with reduced populations but with the potential to invade larger areas of the country in the near future.

Figure 2. Individuals of the house sparrow (Passer domesticus; A), Eurasian collared dove (Streptopelia decaocto; B), European starling (Sturnus vulgaris; C), great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus; D), rock pigeon (Columba livia; E), and cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis; F). All these birds are abundant and widely distributed invasive species in Mexico. Images modified from electronic sources

In this way, considering the mentioned sources and additional sightings of the cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) made by our research team in Sonora and Baja California, we have compiled a list of a total of 46 invasive species present in Mexico (Table 1). This represents 4.5% of the approximately 1150 species found in the country. Among these, 36 (69.2%) are exotic, and 16 (30.8%) are native.

What do we know about the ecology of invasive birds in Mexico? The study of invasive birds in Mexico began in the last decade of the previous century, with an increase in the number of publications from 2008 onwards (Figure 3). After conducting an intensive literature search, we categorized studies on invasive birds in Mexico into seven research themes. We found a total of 88 scientific publications, of which 34 studies were related to the theme of urban ecology (39%), and 28 were reports of new sightings (32%; Figure 3). The remaining 30% of publications included 10 studies on life history traits, five on demography and habitat use, four on physiology/behavior, four on impacts on native avifauna, and three on invasion processes (Figure 3).

Since most studies presenting information on invasive birds do not specifically focus on this topic but rather include invasive species in avifauna lists, the existing information is very limited for drawing general conclusions. The presence of records of invasive bird species in studies on urban ecology clearly shows the strong association between many of these species and urbanization. In general, it has been found that invasive bird species tend to dominate bird communities in areas modified by human activities, where species richness is lower (Ortega-Álvarez and MacGregor-Fors 2009).

Articles on life history traits have primarily studied the reproduction of the Eurasian collared dove, the European starling, and the monk parakeet in locations in the country where they have recently established. On the other hand, habitat use studies show that the house sparrow, the Eurasian collared dove, and other invasive bird species prefer disturbed sites for establishment (MacGregor-Fors et al. 2017). However, it is concerning that some of these species are invading more pristine areas where they could have greater effects on native species (MacGregor-Fors et al. 2009b).

Studies on physiology and behavior demonstrate that the house sparrow has a greater capacity to tolerate human presence than native species (García-Arroyo and MacGregor-Fors 2020), exhibits physiological plasticity that reduces stress in urban areas (Chávez-Zichinelli et al. 2010), and is more "bold" in invaded sites than in its original distribution (Quesada et al. 2022).

Figure 3. Top: Number of studies on invasive birds in Mexico generated per year, and cumulative, from 1978 to 2022. Bottom: Representation of the percentage distribution of scientific publications on invasive birds in Mexico according to their research themes.

Some of the most important results generated in Mexico demonstrate the effects of invasive birds on native bird communities. For example, the house sparrow and the Eurasian collared dove alter the structure of native bird communities, reducing their species richness (MacGregor-Fors et al. 2009a; Camacho-Cervantes and Schondube 2018). It is known that sites invaded by the house sparrow have native bird communities with up to 30% fewer species, with the majority of the missing species being small granivorous birds. These studies provide compelling evidence of the ability of invasive species to impact local bird assemblages.

Finally, it has been shown that the speed of invasion processes is related to both the pet trade (MacGregor-Fors et al. 2011) and the climatic conditions of invaded sites (Peña-Peniche et al. 2021). The findings from previous studies conducted in Mexico highlight a lack of information on important aspects such as the description of invasion processes, behavior, and their ecological and economic effects. It is crucial, in addition to expanding research in these areas, to conduct national censuses and studies on demographic processes that allow us to establish efficient management strategies in the short term for these new species inhabiting our country.

Acknowledgments: We would like to express our gratitude to Edgar Pérez-Negrón for his support in all our research activities related to this topic.

REFERENCES

Álvarez Romero J, Medellín RA, Oliveras de Ita A, Gómez de Silva H, Sánchez Ó. 2008. Animales exóticos en México: una amenaza para la biodiversidad. CONABIO. UNAM. SEMARNAT. México, D.F.

Blackburn TM., Cassey P, Lockwood JL. 2009. The role of species traits in the establishment success of exotic birds. Global Change Biology, 15:2852–2860. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1365-2486.2008.01841.x

Camacho-Cervantes M, Schondube JE. 2018. Habitat use by the invasive exotic Eurasian CollaredDove (Streptopelia decaocto) and native dove species in the Chamela-Cuixmala region of West Mexico. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 130:1003–1008. https:// doi.org/10.1676/1559-4491.130.4.902

Chávez-zichinelli CA, MacGregor-Fors I, Talamás P, Valdéz R, Romano MC, Schondube JE. 2010. Stress responses of the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) to different urban land uses. Landscape and Urban Planning, 98:183–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.08.001

CONABIO. 2022. Sistema de información sobre especies invasoras en México. Comisión Nacional Para El Conocimiento y Uso de La Biodiversidad. Consultado el 20 de julio de 2022. https://enciclovida.mx/exoticas-invasoras

Downs CT, Hart LA. 2020. Invasive birds: Global trends and impacts. CABI.

Duncan RP, Blackburn TM, Sol D. 2003. The Ecology of Bird Introductions. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34:71–98. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132353

Dyer EE, Cassey P, Redding DW, Collen B, Franks V, Gaston J, Jones KE, Kark S, Orme CDL, Blackburn TM. 2017. The Global Distribution and Drivers of Alien Bird Species Richness. PLoS Biology, 15:e2000942. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2000942

Elton, C. S. (1958). The ecology of invasions by plants and animals.

García-arroyo M, MacGregor-Fors I. 2020. Tolerant to humans? Assessment of alert and flight initiation distances of two bird species in relation to sex, flock size, and environmental characteristics. Ethology Ecology y Evolution, 32:445–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/03949370.2020.1753115

MacGregor-Fors I, Calderón-Parra R, Meléndez-Herrada A, López-López S, Schondube JE. 2011. Pretty, but dangerous! Records of non-native Monk Parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) in Mexico. Revista mexicana de biodiversidad, 82:1053-1056.

MacGregor-Fors I, Morales-Pérez L, Quesada J, Schondube JE. 2009a. Relationship between the presence of House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) and Neotropical bird community structure and diversity. Biological Invasions, 12:87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-009-9432-5

MacGregor-Fors I, Quesada J, Lee JG-H, Yeh PJ. 2017. Space invaders: House Sparrow densities along three urban-agricultural landscapes. Avian Conservation & Ecology, 12:11–11. MacGregor-Fors I., Vázquez L, Vega-rivera JH, Schondube JE. 2009b. Non-exotic invasion of Great-tailed Grackles Quiscalus mexicanus in a tropical dry forest reserve. Ardea, 97:367–369. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10530-009-9432-5.

Martínez-Morales MA, Zuria I, Chapa-Vargas L, MacGregor-Fors I, Ortega-Álvarez R, Romero-Águila E, Carbó P. 2010. Current distribution and predicted geographic expansion of the Rufous-backed Robin in Mexico: a fading endemism?. Diversity and Distributions, 16:786-797.

Ortega-Álvarez R, MacGregor-Fors I. 2009. Living in the big city: Effects of urban land-use on bird community structure, diversity, and composition. Landscape and urban planning, 90:189-195.

Quesada J, Chávez-zichinelli CA, García-Arroyo M, Yeh PJ, Guevara R, Izquierdo-Palma J, MacGregorFors I. 2022. Bold or shy? Examining the risk-taking behavior and neophobia of invasive and noninvasive house sparrows. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 45.1:97–106.

Ramírez Albores JE, Chapa Vargas L. 2015. Presencia de aves exóticas en la ciudad de San Luis Potosí, Altiplano Mexicano. Revista Bio Ciencias. 3:132-143

Torres-Urbina F. 2017. Especies de pericos (psitácidos) en Morelos. Inventio, 13:39-46.Peña-Peniche A, Mota-Vargas C, García-arroyo M, MacGregor-Fors I. 2021. On the North American invasion of the House Sparrow and its absence in the Yucatan Peninsula. Avian Conservation & Ecology, 16:18.

Yours truly tries her hand at Mexico´s most famous and seasonal dish

FROM JENNIFER´S KITCHEN

Chiles en Nogada

As a non-Mexican, I am not an expert on this dish, and though I love to cook, I recognize the lack of authenticity, because I am a Canadian who lived in Mexico for many years, and had never even ordered this dish in a restaurant (mostly because the restaurants are beyond my budget and I am also scared of meat unless I cook it) .

Being brave, I offered to host a birthday dinner party in late August, for my friend Urszula, who is a PhD Scientist from Poland, with friends in Patzcuaro. Urszula and I discussed the menu, and a few days before the party, I realized the gravity of what I had commited to. I will stop here, because I abhor online recipes that make one scroll for the instructions in lieu of stories.

9 Grams of walnut skins will definitely sour your salsa, as the skins are bitter. 2 Cups of walnuts rendered 9 grams of skins - so YES, this is very important - and it took me 4 hours to accomplish this! My friend Maria Carney Parrino informed me recently, that I can buy peeled walnuts from Panza Feliz, in the Mercado of Plaza Chica.

Jennifer`s Chiles en Nogada

For anyone who loves to cook, these are very easy. Do not be intimidated by some myth that these require two days, a ton of skill, or expert kitchen experience. If you have some patience, a bit of time, and a love for cooking, you will be the hero of your dinner party post-haste!

FULL INGREDIENTS FOR SHOPPING LIST:

14 - 16 Poblano Peppers (Larger is better)

1 Pound Ground Pork

1 Pound Ground Beef

2 Tbsp Butter

1 Large Apple

1 Large Pear

1 Large Peach

1 Large Plantain

1 Cup Raisins

6 Oz Goat Cheese (Can use Feta or Cream Cheese for sweet)

2.5 Cups Whole Milk

2.5 Cups Walnuts (can use white sliced Almonds)

1 Cup Tomato Sauce

5 Cloves Garlic

One teaspoon cinnamon (divided)

Half teaspoon black pepper

One teaspoon allspice

Half teaspoon nutmeg

Quarter teaspoon Cloves (increase by taste)

1 Tsp dry thyme (or 2 Tsp Fresh)

2 Tsp Salt

2 Tsp Sugar

2 Tsp Olive Oil

Parsley

Pomegranate x 1 (I always buy 2, just in case one is sour)

Ready to blend

FIRST STEP: WALNUTS

You can soak your walnuts in water overnight, then strain before peeling. A fork can really help to loosen and peel skins. You can also toast them slightly, in the oven, then loosen the skins by rubbing in cloth. I have found the former method the easiest.

Please Note: The skins of walnuts are bitter. My friend urged me to quit peeling skins, as she thought they would amount to nothing. This is why I saved and weighed them after. 9 Grams for 2 cups of sauce is a substantial amount.

SECOND STEP: THE SAUCE

Combine 2 Cups of peeled Walnuts, 6 ounces of goat or feta cheese, 1 cup of whole milk and 1 tsp of cinnamon. Blend until the sauce is liquid and soft.

THIRD STEP: MEAT SAUCE

Add diced onions to a hot pan of melting butter and cloves of crushed garlic.

Add pork and beef, and brown

Incorporate tomato sauce

Add all diced fresh fruit, and halved raisins

Add thyme, cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, clove and salt.

THIRD STEP: POBLANO PEPPERS

Place 14-16 de-seeded poblano peppers on parchment paper in the oven at 200 degrees celcius, for about 20 - 30 minutes. Once cooked and soft, remove from the oven and peel off the burnt skin.

The cleaning process already created a slice in the body of the pepper, which you can now use to stuff meat into the body of the capsicum. 

A Fiestaware Casserole Dish of Chiles en Nogada

THE LAST STEP

Some say Chiles en Nogada should be served cold. Others say Room Temperature. Most say the sauce should be room temperature. After being stuffed, I baked them for about 20 mins at 200 C.

It is only the foreigners who request a hot dish. And as much as I wish to be an authentic Meixcan, I must admit to being the gringo who wants a hot meat dish, with a room-temp sauce. Please forgive me! It certainly seems that my Mexican friends have.They came, they ate, they delighted, and they said "good job!"

I think this recipe suffices.

QUESTIONS?

Email Jennifer at coppermoontravels@protonmail.com

DID YOU MISS OUR LAST ISSUE?